Germany: WWI - WWII

The political, economic, and social landscape of Germany changed radically between German unification in 1871 and the end of World War II in 1945. Many events took place, which shaped not only the future of Germany as a nation, but also the identities and views of the people. These events included World War I, its aftermath, the rise and fall of the Weimar Republic, and the rise of The Third Reich and World War II. One event that really stood out to me was the 20^th of July movement and the impact that it had.

German WWI Propaganda Poster - source

The German people met the start of World War I with much excitement and feelings of national pride. Propaganda called it “the spirit of 1914” (p191). The German people also finally had military commanders they could look up to and find hope in: Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, which brought unity. Where political parties had brought disunity in the past, they now brought people together as they all supported the government. Under the surface, however, severe food shortages threatened internal cooperation.

Delegates signing the Treaty of Versailles - source

Following the war, a massive power struggle erupted between the Reichstag majority, the socialists, and the moderates. The Weimar Republic eventually resulted, with a constitution established in 1919. In addition to political unrest, the demands of the Treaty of Versailles created difficulties for the German people. Germany was met with the loss of land and enormous financial burdens, and demilitarization left the nation defenseless. Germany was left “economically ruined and politically humiliated” (p204). Almost all Germans opposed the treaty’s stipulations and felt that “unjust terms were being forced on a defenseless country” (p204).

Example of art during the Weimar Republic - "The Family" by
Max Beckmann - 1920 - source

The Weimar Republic, however, brought political stability and an eventual economic upturn. German culture flourished in this time of peace. Far left and far right opinions dominated intellectual and artistic creativity. Unfortunately the peace did not last long. Political and social tensions rose, giving rise to Hitler’s National Socialist German Workers’ Party, promising solutions to class tensions and freedom from the Versailles treaty’s demands. Hitler and the National Socialists used difficult conditions to gain a following from all class levels. The Great Depression made matters much worse and eventually spelled the end for the Weimar Republic, which collapsed under the pressure. After some political struggle, leaders finally turned to Hitler and appointed him chancellor on January 30, 1933.

Though the National Socialists were delighted, the majority of Germans met Hitler’s appointment with apathy. Though he now controlled the government, he did not have control over the minds of the people. Without the people behind him, his dictatorship could not be firmly established. Hitler utilized two methods in gaining support. The first was through state terror, censorship, and forced emigration of anything or anyone he deemed threatening to the new regime. On the other hand he created benefits, like jobs and recreation, for his chosen people. He also appealed to the emotions and traditions of the people, like associating himself with Frederick the Great. For the Arian race, the Hitler regime brought unity and feelings of nationalism.

Axis Powers - Red
Allied Powers - Blue
source

Once progress was made internally, Hitler, greedy for war, focused attention on the rest of Europe. Though the people were wary of war, early victories brought Hitler to the highest level of popularity in Germany. War brought even more changes for the German people. Feelings of fear and mistrust grew stronger as public life was militarized and citizens were encouraged to spy on one another. People withdrew to their homes, avoiding the outside world and focusing on survival. Class distinctions began to disappear and German society became more homogenized. They all watched the same movies, listened to the same radio broadcasts, and stood in the same lines for food. The people watched in horror as their symbols of cultural heritage, cathedrals, palaces, and town centers, were all but destroyed. They also saw the attacks on and deportation of Jews, but many feared standing up against the horrific actions of the regime. Following the war, many Germans felt shameful responsibility for the Nazi’s actions. It is a stigma they still must deal with. I know many Americans immediately think of the Nazis when asked what they associate with Germany.

Hitler's conference room in the Wolf's Lair following the
20th of July bombing - source

One event I found particularly interesting was the 20^th of July plot. In 1944, a group of men staged a coup and attempted to assassinate Hitler. They also tried to stage an uprising and take control of key positions of power within the Nazi regime. The plan failed, however, and the conspirators and some of their relatives were brutally tortured and killed. Though the attempt did not come to fruition, the different classes working together during the plot brought a sense of community and a common standard for political and social groups. The 20^th of July movement left a legacy that is still visible in Germany today. (800)

Unifying Germany: A Nation of the People

Despite Germany’s long and rich history, it is a surprisingly young nation, founded January 18, 1871, almost 100 years after the thirteen American colonies declared their independence from the British Empire. The long road to German unification was rough. The German people struggled to find their identity amidst many years of political, economic, and social change in Europe. But eventually they did, and the people’s fervent patriotism, combined with a perfect storm of revolts and wars, led the German states to finally come together.

The German states tried to unify many times before 1871, but the timing was not right. Following the 30 Year’s War, the region faced crippling poverty and a stagnant economy. While other European nations adopted reforms, the German principalities “possessed neither the financial means nor the will to mold themselves into new-style states with modern administrations” (70). The region lacked a sense of unity, was devastated by war, and had no national hero to look up to. However, in the wake of the Peace of Westphalia, the seeds of a German identity began to sprout. Southern German culture was heavily influenced by Catholic countries like France, Italy, and Spain, giving the region a rich, “cosmopolitan splendor” (75). Later, in the years of peace following the Seven Year’s War, leaders spoke of reforming the Holy Roman Empire and forming a third Germany, a federation of 300 small territories, alongside Prussia and Austria. There was still, however, no real sense of what it meant to be “German.”

A unique German identity really began as a group of people united under a common language. Following Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible into his dialect, Protestants worked on a standard language. The language further developed when German princes needed the help of educated civil servants in an attempt to keep tabs on their territories. They therefore supported academics, fostering an educated middle class during the 18^th century. Literature, drama, and opera that developed under this common language helped to create “unified opinions and taste.” Germans began to identify with and embrace a “modern spirit,” forging national identity (89). This new idea of a German nation, united by language and culture, however, remained in the minds of the educated.

Politically, Napoleon’s victories in 1806 were a catalyst for reform of German states and national discovery.

The Confederation of the Rhine was made up of German states,
formed following Napoleon's defeat of Austria and Russia,
and lasted from 1806 to 1813.
source

The Confederation of the Rhine was formed, adopting a modern civil law code and eliminating aristocratic privilege and serfdom. Germans begin to resent French presence and long for their own identity and freedom, creating a national movement demanding liberation. Patriotic feelings sparked small insurrections, but these were swiftly defeated. Napoleon’s losses in Russia, however, caused patriotic excitement, uprisings, and a Prussian call to arms. Schulze called the ensuing Wars of Liberation a “people’s war” since the population was “seized by a fever of excitement that made the ‘German nation’ a direct, personal, experience” (106).

Following the Prussian victory and the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the German Confederation was formed, a loose alliance of 39 states under an Austrian emperor. Citizens demanded a free, unified Germany, but state ministers agreed to suppress thoughts of revolution and liberation. The peacetime again brought the development of the arts and architecture, and fostered a growing dislike of the French. The people were united through cultural unity and a mutual hatred for the French, especially following the Rhine crisis of 1840.

The German Confederation: a loose alliance of 39 states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 (indicated by red border)
source

Soon, promised reforms faltered, bringing new tensions and political unrest. Combined with a famine and overcrowded cities in 1847, many groups call for a federal German state held in check by a parliament, to which the German Confederation has no answer. Following the French king’s deposition in 1848, unrest breaks out across Europe and sparks protests in German territories demanding a German national parliament. The German National Assembly is formed and crafts a constitution guaranteeing basic freedoms and an elected national government. The founders could not, however, agree on who would be part of this new nation. The assembly had no real power and was shut down by the larger European powers, who didn’t want to disrupt the status quo.

Following this defeat, the region saw much industrial development and an economic boom, creating mobility, improved communication, and jobs. The pot of unrest began to bubble again and a wave of nationalism again swept the public. Hostilities against the French again fostered a demand for a sovereign German state.

Otto von Bismarck, Prussian chancellor
and architect of German unification
source

The realization of the people’s demands came in view following Otto von Bismarck’s installment as prime minister in 1862. He began setting plans in motion to expand Prussia’s power and sought a reason to fight Austria. Italy’s decision to side with Prussia prompted Austrian troop mobilization. The ensuing war ended with the battle of Königgrätz in 1866, a decisive move towards unity. Previously, Prussia abolished the German Confederation’s constitution, prompting the south Germans to side with Austria. After the war, French aggression heightened tensions, which eventually catalyzed unity. Napoleon III was pushed to declare war in 1870 against the Prussians and German unification happened at the same time.

After many years of failed attempts, the time was right and public patriotism finally pushed the allied south and north to unify and form the German Empire. Both the nobility and parliament approved the nation’s legitimization and King William I of Prussia was named the emperor in 1871.

The German Empire, made up of unified German states following the Franco-Prussian war. The southern German states joined with the Prussian-controlled Northern German Confederation.
source

The German flag, inspired by the colors worn by German soldiers during the Napoleonic Wars
source

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Berlin - A City Divided

After watching the BBC’s documentary about Berlin, I found it very interesting that two features of the city throughout its history have been the clash of ideas and the struggle for freedom. Points in history demonstrating this that I found intriguing were the character and reign of Frederick the Great and the struggle between East and West Germany after World War II.

Frederick the Great was born in Berlin in 1712 and eventually became King of Prussia. Throughout his life, Frederick embodied a clash between idealism and militarism, between liberation and oppression. From an early age he enjoyed music and the arts. However his father, Frederick Wilhelm I, disliked this and enrolled Frederick in military training. The ruler carried this dichotomy with him during his reign. 

Portrait of King Frederick II by Anton Graff.
Adolf Hitler kept a portrait of the king as one of his
most prized possessions.
source

While king, he was a passionate patron of the arts and promoter of enlightenment ideals. He especially supported Voltaire and his ideas on social reform, equality, and education and put the ideas into practice in Prussia. Frederick is also known for his military genius. He expanded the kingdom, invading Saxony, Austria, and other lands. He brought enlightenment ideas with him and came to be known as a warrior philosopher. Many Germans look to Frederick the Great for inspiration for both reform and militarism. I found it interesting that communist East Germany was strongly against Frederick at first because Adolf Hitler looked up to him for his military might. They even had his statue removed in Berlin. They later changed their minds, embracing him and his ideas of compassion and tolerance. They also looked to his model for a militarized nation. They hoped affiliating with Frederick would help gain support from the people and give them historical legitimacy.

This statue of Frederick the Great was removed, then replaced by
East Berlin authorities.
source

Unfortunately re-associating with Frederick the Great did not solve East Germany’s problems. People were still unsatisfied with tyranny and the terrible divisions created by dividing both Berlin and the nation as a whole. Following the end of World War II, the Allies divided Germany into four military occupation zones. Those in the west controlled by the United States, United Kingdom, and France were merged while East Germany remained under the Soviet Union. This caused conflict with the democratic west and communist east, especially in Berlin. The city was also divided among the allies, even though it was located in East Germany. Those in the west were basically prisoners, especially once the Berlin Wall was built around West Berlin in 1961. The wall divided not only the land, but also families and friends. The people of Berlin demonstrated their strength and desire for freedom throughout the Cold War Era, enduring much hardship and oppression.

A map of Germany showing its divisions among the Allies after World War II
source

I found it interesting that East Berlin became a place of refuge for North Vietnamese communists despite all the bitter conflict. They made Berlin their home and found work. I thought it was sad that once Berlin was unified again the Vietnamese were displaced a bit. German Berliners were upset that they had taken jobs. One Vietnamese man said he didn’t feel like a true Berliner, even though he had lived there almost his whole life. I found this surprising, especially when I heard some of what JFK said when he traveled to Berlin: “All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin.” That Vietnamese man, however, still felt like an outsider.

JFK giving his famous "Ich Bin Ein Berliner" speech, which inspired hope in many citizens of Berlin.
source

As an American, I found it somewhat easy to understand the two things characteristic of Berlin. Though perhaps not as extreme, Americans experience clashing ideas, especially since our nation, to use a cliché, is a melting pot of different cultures and peoples. Throughout history, Berliners have faced much oppression and have fought time and again for their freedom. In America, we have a tendency to take our freedoms for granted. Learning about the struggles Berliners have endured was very eye opening for me. It also made me think about those struggling for freedom and equality in American society today. I look forward to spending time in Berlin and getting to know more about its rich history and culture. (671)

Other Sources

http://www.history.com/topics/frederick-ii-prussia

http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/speech-3376

Martin Luther

As a Christian, Martin Luther’s work as a religious revolutionary is very familiar to me and important to my faith, since the denomination I am a part of stems from Luther’s actions and the resulting Protestant Reformation. His courageous decision to go up against the Roman Catholic Church and present his ideas had an enormous impact on not only German-speaking lands, but on the whole world. A small spark, starting with a humble monk embarking on a noble quest to right wrongs he saw in the Church fanned into a revolutionary flame. Somewhat unintentionally, Luther’s wake brought great cultural, political, and religious change.

Martin Luther, the man who started the Reformation source 

Since I am a Protestant, I agree with the necessity for reform within the Roman Catholic Church. By the 16^th century, the Church had become incredibly powerful and wealthy. Luther saw much corruption within the church and sought to make things right by removing what he saw to be unnecessary ritual and ceremony, invented by the Church, and returning to the scriptures. His teachings focused on the ordinary Christian and their personal faith, free from the clerical middleman. His new system of religion rapidly gained followers, resentful of the Church’s grievances. Though it divided the Church, this new Lutheranism brought unity among Germans. Luther also translated the Bible into the vernacular, which was spread quickly with the help of the newly invented printing press. This made the scriptures accessible and easily understandable to the common people and also promoted the development of a standard version of the German language.

The doors to Castle Church, Wittenberg, where Martin Luther is said to have nailed his 95 theses. These were practices Luther felt were wrong in the Church. source

What started as a religious movement soon became much larger. Religious, social, and political tensions the Reformation caused created rifts in the Holy Roman Empire. Luther wrote at the dawn of the Age of Enlightenment, a time characterized by the questioning of traditional ideas and positions of authority. The people of Europe saw Luther almost single handedly stand up against one of the most powerful positions of authority at the time, the Roman Catholic Church. Freedom was a central theme in Luther’s teachings, and many liked the sound of that. Leaders of the fragmented German states saw freedom as independence from Rome and its financial drain. Communities could govern themselves without having to report back to the empire. Many peasants began uprisings, eager for social freedom. Luther, however, was horrified at the violence and extremism his teachings fueled.

Luther at the Diet of Worms by Anton von Werner. Luther presented his case before influential world leaders, including the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. This action inspired many to question authority and seek freedom. source 

I was shocked to learn how harsh he was against the peasants and Jews. His hate towards them, to me, does not line up with his character as a man of faith. It also seemed strange to me that he would completely abandon the ordinary person in the political and social realm after stressing their importance in the religious realm. He instead stressed the importance of obeying political authorities, (important for the peaceful coexistence of church and state) which I thought to be a bit hypocritical after standing up against the Church. But like it or not, Martin Luther’s decision to oppose the Church started revolutions that would completely change both German and European lands. (505)

Sources:

http://youtube.com/watch?v=ni1gupkGAW0

http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtgermany10.htm

Reformation and Counter-Reformation Culture in Germany

While reading the second chapter of Germany: A New History by Hagen Schulze, which covered fifteenth through seventeenth century Germany, one topic that particularly stood out to me was the idea of Counter-Reformation culture and its impact. I found it interesting because when I previously considered the Protestant Reformation, I always focused on the schism within the Church, the creation of new Christian denominations, and the repercussions it had on European politics. Some nations, like Ireland, still deal with the divide today. But I never really thought to consider the Reformation and Counter-Reformation’s effects on European culture. Art is a hobby of mine, so the Counter-Reformation’s impact on the arts also interested me.

A map of religious divisions in Europe in 1648. The regions sharing similar religions influenced each other culturally. Since Germany was divided, the northeast and south developed much differently. source

Following the Protestant Reformation, western and southern Germany remained largely Catholic and thus was influenced by the Counter-Reformation culture of southern Europe, especially France and Italy, according to Schulze’s text. Because Protestant reformers rejected the use of visual arts in the church, the northeast focused on music and the study of language and literature. Even with an emphasis on literature, the common people remained largely illiterate until the invention of the printing press. The Catholics opposed Protestant severity and instead strongly encouraged the arts. This lead to the development of an extravagant artistic, theatrical, and architectural style, known as Baroque. The style was highly expressive and dramatic, yet easily interpreted. Religious themes and ideas were communicated to the illiterate masses through the arts, with the church as its sponsor. 

The Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (Basilika Vierzehnheiligen) in Bad Staffelstein, Bavaria. This church demonstrates the extravagance of the Counter-Reformation. source 

The development of differing cultures, rooted in the Reformation and Counter Reformation, continue to reveal the issues of unity and identity in early German history. I found it especially interesting that the consequences of the cultural divide can still be found in Germany today. Southern Germans remain largely Catholic while those in the north and east are mostly Protestant.

The divide can also be seen in German Baroque architecture. The splendid cathedrals in the south contrast with the plain northern churches. I especially look forward to experiencing this cultural difference as we explore German architecture during our trip in December. (403)